Hul - The Santal Rebelion

Santal Hul was one of the fiercest battles in the history of Indian freedom struggles causing greatest number of loss of lives in any battles during that time. The number of causalities of Santal Hul was 20,000 according to Hunter who wrote it in annals of Rural Bengal.  The Santal Hul of 1855-57 was master minded by four brothers Sidhu, Kahnu, Chand and Bhairav; a heroic episode in India's prolonged struggle for freedom. It was, in all probability, the fiercest liberation movement in India next to Great Sepoy Mutiny in 1857.

With the capture of political power of India by the East India Company, the natural habitats of the Adivasi (indigenous) people including the Santals began to shatter by the intruders like moneylenders. Traders and revenue farmers, who descended upon them in large numbers under the patronage of the Company.

Believe it or not, the rate of interest on loan to the poor and illiterate Santals varied from 50% to 500%. These intruders were, needless to mention the crucial links in the chain of ruthless exploitation under colonial rule. They were the instruments through which the indigenous groups and tribes were brought within the influence and control of the colonial economy.

Discontent had been simmering in the Santal Paraganas( presently in Jharkhand ) from the early decades of the nineteenth century owing to most naked exploitation of the indigenous Santals by both the British authorities and their collaborators, native immigrants.

Sido Murmu and Kanhu Murmu, hailing from the village Bhognadih in Sahibganj district, had long been brooding over the injustices perpetrated by the oppressors like hundreds and hundreds of their tribe's men. The situation finally reached a flash point and, not surprisingly, a small episode that took place in July 1855 triggered one of the fiercest uprisings that the British administration ever faced in India.

The emergence of Sido and Kanhu, youthful, dynamic and charismatic, provided a rallying point for the Santals to revolt against the oppressors .On 30th June 1855, a large number of Santals assembled in a field in Bhagnadihi village of Santal Paragana, They declared themselves as free and took oath under the leadership of Sido Murmu and Kanhu Murmu to fight unto the last against the British rulers as well as their agents.

Militant mood of the Santals frightened the authority. A Police agent confronted them on the 7th July and tried to place the Murmu brothers under arrest. The angry crowd reacted violently and killed the Police agent and his companions. The event sparked off a series of confrontations with the Company's Army and subsequently reached the scale of a full-fledged war.

At the outset, Santal rebels, led by Sido and Kanhu, made tremendous gains and captured control over a large tract of the country extending from Rajmahal hills in Bhagalpur district to Sainthia in Birbhum district. For the time being, British rule in this vast area became completely paralyzed.

Many moneylenders and native agents of the Company were killed. Local British administrators took shelter in the Pakur Fort to save their life. However, they rebel could not hold on to their gains due to the superior fire power of the East India Company came down heavily on them.

The courage, chivalry and sacrifice of the Santals were countered by the rulers with veritable butchery. Out of 50,000 Santal rebels, 15,000 20,000 were killed by the British Indian Army. The Company was finally able to suppress the rebellion in 1856, though some outbreaks continued till 1857.

The Santals showed great bravery and incredible courage in the struggle against the military. As long as their national drums continued beating, the whole party would stand and allow themselves to be shot down. There was no sign of yielding. Once forty Santals refused to surrender and took shelter inside a mud house. The troops surrounded the mud house and fired at them but Santals replied with their arrows. Then Soldiers made big hole through muddy wall, and the Captain ordered them surrender but they again shot a volley of arrows through the hole and Captain again asked them to surrender but they continued shooting arrows. Some of the soldiers were wounded. At last when the discharge of arrows from the door slackened, the Captain went inside the room with soldiers. He found only one  old man grievously wounded, standing erect among the dead bodies. The soldier asked him to throw away arms, but instead he rushed on him and killed him with his battle axe.

It is believed that Sido was captured by the British forces through treachery and Kanhu through an encounter at Uparbanda. And was subsequently killed in captivity. The Santal Hul, however, did not come to an end in vain. It had a long-lasting impact. Santal Parganas Tenancy Act was the outcome of this struggle, which dished out some sort of protection to the indigenous people from the ruthless colonial exploitation. The understanding the mistake, tired to appease the Santals by removing the genuine grievances. Santal territory was born. The regular police was abolished and the duty of keeping peace and order and arresting criminals was vested in the hands of parganait and village headman.

Series of Jadu Pat Again

Sindur

Sindur (vermilion) blood-red powder, usually smeared on the forehead and at the parting of the hair (sithi) of Hindu married women. This is part of the MARRIAGE ritual and is inherited from ancient tribal cultures. It was inconceivable in many tribal communities that a marriage would take place without the use of vermilion as a ceremonial seal to the wedlock. According to the practice in some communities, marriages are solemnised by putting vermilion on the forehead and sithi of the bride as the priest prays to god for happiness of the couple. This is done without incantation of any hymns. According to the custom of the Kharia tribesmen, after a bride is given away by her parents, the couple stand up and smear each other's foreheads with vermilion seven times and garland each other as their dresses are knotted amidst playing of drums. After the bride is given away, the groom puts vermilion on the bride's sithi with the help of his little finger seven times. Among the Bhumij tribesmen, marriage is performed by a priest's incantation of hymns and giving away of the bride. The groom then puts vermilion at the bride's sithi three times with the help of his little finger. Next, the hands of the couple are joined together.
In a marriage of the Ho tribe the groom must put vermilion on the forehead or at the sithi of the bride. A Ho boy with the help of his friends may forcibly bring a girl home and put vermilion on her forehead to validly claim to have married her. Even putting vermilion forcibly by a boy on a girl's forehead in any public place like a market or a fair would make her his legal wife. However, this practice is discouraged these days. According to the Birho community's wedding custom, the little fingers of the groom and the bride are pricked so that a drop of blood of each can soak a piece of cloth with which they can touch their throats three times. The groom then puts three drops of oil on the soil and puts vermilion powder on them. This oil-soaked vermilion is then smeared on the bride's forehead and sithi to conclude the wedding and establish full rights of the groom over the bride. Among the MUNDA tribe, the groom and the bride use vermilion to paint three bright red lines on each other's forehead and then exchange garlands to seal their wedding. Mahalid tribe's custom is that the groom puts vermilion at the sithi of the bride five times after paying dowry to her father. This concludes the wedding.
SANTALS have varied customs of marriage but vermilion is common to all. Usually, the groom drops vermilion on the soil three times and puts it at the sithi of the bride as many times keeping the Sun-god as witness. In the event of the parents of either side not consenting to the marriage of the two lovers, the boy may forcibly put vermilion on the sithi of the girl to claim her to be his legally wedded wife. Santals believe that a girl can receive vermilion on her sithi from a boy only once. In the case of marriage with a widow, vermilion is not put at her sithi; instead it is put on a white flower three times before the flower is stuck into her hair bun.
Use of vermilion is not, universal among married Hindu women of all areas of India. Marriage rituals of Bengali Hindus also differ from those of Hindus of other parts of the subcontinent. Bengalis regard SHANKHA (conch shell bangles) and vermilion as essential wear for married women but Hindus of other parts of India do not. The bangles and the vermilion disappear as soon as a woman becomes a widow. In aboriginal societies, vermilion was regarded as symbol of victory. Putting the pigment on the forehead of a girl abducted by a suitor was but a signal to say 'I have won her and she is mine'. There are anecdotes to suggest that in the ancient times vermilion was put on the forehead of a person to hypnotise him or her and not necessarily for honest purposes. There are instances to suggest that robbers and those out in daring acts of adventure used to put vermilion on their foreheads, ostensibly to seek success and protection. According to some historical records, women in olden days used to apply vermilion to redden their lips as against lipsticks used by modern women.

Sindur(Vermilion)

Sindur blood-red powder, usually smeared on the forehead and at the parting of the hair (sithi) of Hindu married women. This is part of the MARRIAGE ritual and is inherited from ancient tribal cultures. It was inconceivable in many tribal communities that a marriage would take place without the use of vermilion as a ceremonial seal to the wedlock. According to the practice in some communities, marriages are solemnised by putting vermilion on the forehead and sithi of the bride as the priest prays to god for happiness of the couple. This is done without incantation of any hymns. According to the custom of the Kharia tribesmen, after a bride is given away by her parents, the couple stand up and smear each other's foreheads with vermilion seven times and garland each other as their dresses are knotted amidst playing of drums. After the bride is given away, the groom puts vermilion on the bride's sithi with the help of his little finger seven times. Among the Bhumij tribesmen, marriage is performed by a priest's incantation of hymns and giving away of the bride. The groom then puts vermilion at the bride's sithi three times with the help of his little finger. Next, the hands of the couple are joined together.
In a marriage of the Ho tribe the groom must put vermilion on the forehead or at the sithi of the bride. A Ho boy with the help of his friends may forcibly bring a girl home and put vermilion on her forehead to validly claim to have married her. Even putting vermilion forcibly by a boy on a girl's forehead in any public place like a market or a fair would make her his legal wife. However, this practice is discouraged these days. According to the Birhor community's wedding custom, the little fingers of the groom and the bride are pricked so that a drop of blood of each can soak a piece of cloth with which they can touch their throats three times. The groom then puts three drops of oil on the soil and puts vermilion powder on them. This oil-soaked vermilion is then smeared on the bride's forehead and sithi to conclude the wedding and establish full rights of the groom over the bride. Among the Munda tribe, the groom and the bride use vermilion to paint three bright red lines on each other's forehead and then exchange garlands to seal their wedding. Mahalid tribe's custom is that the groom puts vermilion at the sithi of the bride five times after paying dowry to her father. This concludes the wedding.
SANTALS have varied customs of marriage but vermilion is common to all. Usually, the groom drops vermilion on the soil three times and puts it at the sithi of the bride as many times keeping the Sun-god as witness. In the event of the parents of either side not consenting to the marriage of the two lovers, the boy may forcibly put vermilion on the sithi of the girl to claim her to be his legally wedded wife. Santals believe that a girl can receive vermilion on her sithi from a boy only once. In the case of marriage with a widow, vermilion is not put at her sithi; instead it is put on a white flower three times before the flower is stuck into her hair bun.
Use of vermilion is not, universal among married Hindu women of all areas of India. Marriage rituals of Bengali Hindus also differ from those of Hindus of other parts of the subcontinent. Bengalis regard SHANKHA (conch shell bangles) and vermilion as essential wear for married women but Hindus of other parts of India do not. The bangles and the vermilion disappear as soon as a woman becomes a widow. In aboriginal societies, vermilion was regarded as symbol of victory. Putting the pigment on the forehead of a girl abducted by a suitor was but a signal to say 'I have won her and she is mine'. There are anecdotes to suggest that in the ancient times vermilion was put on the forehead of a person to hypnotise him or her and not necessarily for honest purposes. There are instances to suggest that robbers and those out in daring acts of adventure used to put vermilion on their foreheads, ostensibly to seek success and protection. According to some historical records, women in olden days used to apply vermilion to redden their lips as against lipsticks used by modern women.

Santal Parab: the Cultural Landscape

All the festivals of the Santals are celebrated with glorious dances and music accompanied with great instruments. The performance of these only gives expression to their inner feelings, their joys and sorrows, their natural affections and passions and their appreciation of beauty in nature and in humanity. Each Parab is being associated with some socially functional value creation which is distributive as well as conservationist in nature and we should not forget the inter-linkages between the traditional value based parabs, and the livelihood issue.
The dances and songs of Santals are classics. The rhymes are Lagne, Tuhur lagne, Dong, Pakdon, Gulyari, Dahar, Baha, Rinja, Dhimsar, Jhika, Humti, Gunjar, Shorai, Dhogen and Dasain. Dahar and lagne are the songs sung with group dancing with the male drummer. Dahar enejs are performed generally during the month of Poush, Magh and Fagun. Lagne enej happen to be in the month of Chait, Baisakh, Asar, San and Bhadrav. Tuhur Lagne from Sohorai to Sakrat. Sohorai during the month of Sohorai (October-November), Dasain during Dasain bonga (Bhadra-Ashin), Dong and Pakdons are performed during the month of Chait, Baisat (Baisakh), Jhent ( Jyesth), Bir Sereng and marriage ‘binti’ can be sung without dancing. Baha dance is danced at Baha Parab occasion, Rinja and Dhimsar dances are danced at Karam Parob. Other songs are sung at the time of paddy plantation or at the time of plucking vegetable leaves and melancholy song at the time of extinction of life of a member in the community.

TheSantals

The Santals are one of the largest ethnic groups in India. They occupy primarily the Chotanagpur Plateau, with their settlements distributed over an area of 350 miles, from the Ganges to the Baitarani, between long. 86 degrees-88 degrees E and lat. 22 degrees-26 degrees N. Politically, this region extends through the states of Bihar, West Bengal, and northern Orissa. Within each of these states, the SANTAL population is concentrated as follows: Bihar--districts of SANTAL Parganas, Manbhum, Singhbhum, Bhagalpur, Hazaribagh, and Monghyr; West Bengal--districts of Bankura, Birbhum, and Midnapore; Orissa--districts of Mayurbhanj and Balasore.
Their social organization of the community is very complete; each village has its headman or manjhi, with his assistant the paranik; the jogmanghi is charged with the supervision of the morals of the young men and women; the naeke is the village priest, the godet is the village constable. Over a group of villages is the pargana or tribal chief. The Santal are divided into following exogamous sects/clans with respect to their surnames and Totem associated 1. Hansda 2. Murmu 3. Kisku 4. Hembram 5. Soren 6. Marndi 7. Tudu 8. Besra 9. Baskey 10. Pauria 11. Chaney 12. Bedea. Their social observances are complex, e.g. while some relations treat each other with the greatest reserve, between others the utmost freedom of intercourse is allowed.

Village administration

The cultural analysis of the Santal village administration would pave the way for a clear understanding of the economic and political stratification and their history and evolution in ancient India. This indeed, will give an idea about the contribution of Santals towards modern social system. The Santal society is characterized by democratic equality. Wealth matters little in the day-to-day life. The clans are regarded as equal to another clans and there is no class distinction either in status or occupation. The village is generally multi clans and each clan has sub number. The Santal villages are social and political entities with great cohesion and continuity. Each village has well established political organization with a secular headman called Majhi who is a man of great prestige. The village council controls the entire social system of the Santals. The village council or Atu Mone Hor is consisted of Majhi (village headman), Jog Majhi (Deputy village Headman), Paranik (Assistant to village Headman), Goddet (secretary to village Headman), Jog Paranik(deputy Paranik), Naeke (head village priest) and Kudam Naeke (Assitant to village priest). All the villagers are member of the village council. Village council is the institution that settles all the disputes of the villages. Santal community as a whole maintains certain uniform customs and laws with relation to marriage, divorce, birth etc. Majhi presides over the village council meetings when they are held to discuss the matters related to village. In event of disputes arises with different village, he acts as representative of village. Paranik is the principal assistant to Majhi and representative of Majhi. If Majhi dies without any male issues or brothers, then paranik will get the office. and Goddet. No public sacrifice, no festival, no ceremony such as marriage can be done without Majhi taking initiative. Jog Majhi serves as the supernatant of the youth of the village and he is one the link between younger generation to older generation and he generally passing all the secrets to younger ones. In the absent of Jog Majhi, the Jog Paranik officiates. Equally important is the religious headman called Naeke and his assistant Kudam Naeke.

OtherCeremonies&Rituals

Birth and naming ceremony:
When Santal women get pregnant, she and her husband observe certain taboos. The husband during his wife's pregnancy never kills any animal nor participates in any funeral ceremony and does not come in contact with any dead body. The pregnant woman during the evening very rarely comes out of the house. She does not weep when the death occurs of her relative. On the day of moon eclipse, she will not come out of room. She should not sit on courtyard with her hair or cloth hanging downward. After the birth of a child, the house is considered polluted. So the Santals performs the Janam Chatiar ceremony. Until it is done, no other activities can be undertaken like hinting etc. The usual day for the ceremony is fifth day for male and third day for female child. After ceremony, the men and women and children of the village who have assembled at the house each a leaf cup full of rice water with the leaves of Neem (Neem dak' Mandi). Generally it tastes sour. On the fifth day, the children are given the name. Should it happen to be son and then he takes the name of grandfather. Should it be second son born, he takes the name of maternal grandfather and thus third from paternal grandfather's brother and fourth from maternal grandfather's brother and so on. The same procedure is followed for girls the female relations being in the same order.
Chacho Chatiar:
It is very important ceremony of the Santals that enables the individual to take his place in Santal society and participate in its rights, rules and ceremonies. Without this no Santal can be married or cremated.
Bitlaha:
It means outcasting Santal from society. This outcast takes place by the order of assembly of villagers. It is resorted when a Santal women indulges in any physical relationships with either Diku (non-Santals) or with a person of name sept. It is worth noting that relatively free sex is prevalent among the Santal society. If it is proved, then the assembly gives the order of outcast and they proceed to carry out the day after annual hunting. A man in the market who carries a branch of sal tree with leaves announces the date of Bitlaha. The person in the market on seeing him understands the matter and counts the leaves that indicate the no of days.
The day of Bitlaha, all female members of village kept themselves away from village. In the early morning bachelors and other male members of the neighboring villages with flutes and drums, bows and arrows meet at the end of Village Street where culprit lives. Drumming is kept terribly high so that it can be heard from long distance. When crowd reaches the house of the offender they tie a short charred bit of firewood, worn out broom ad some used leaf plates on the pole of bamboo and fixed at the entrance of courtyard. Bachelors in undress do desecrate the rooms. The person who outcasted are not allowed to take food with others, and they cannot give their children marriage within the Santal community.
Jam jati:
By performing this ceremony, an outcasted Santal can be taken back in the society. The outcasted man and women go to the village street with twisted cloth rounded their necks and water in a lota. Before the headman and his assistance, the offenders acknowledge the offence and agreed to pay the fine for it. After taking water from lota and wash their mouth and pass it to all leading man who will repeat the same. After this they entered the village and the courtyard of the outcast who personally wash the feet of the leader of he people.

SantalDivorce

Divorce is a common sequel to Santal marriage and is granted at the wish of either husband or wife. The following are the grounds for which the Santal men and women demand the divorce. The husband can demand the divorce if his wife is proved to a witch, or is sexually immortal ad she does not obey him or she lives always in her father's house. The wife can claim divorce, if husband cannot supply sufficient foods, clothing, ornaments etc. Sterility is another ground for divorce. In case husband seeks the divorce, he cannot claim the bride price and he has to pay certain amount of money as fine. If wife demands the divorce then her father has to refund the bride price. The divorce is effected in the presence of the assembled villagers in the following way; The husband is made to stand facing the sun on one leg. He has a cloth rounded his neck each end which is held in the hand along with three Sal leaves. Then taking the name of Sin -Bonga he tears the Sal leaves in the token separation and upset a brass pot full of water. Wife repeats this too. There is belief that if the Sal leaves are not fully torn or the lotta (Brass pot) are not wholly emptied then the couple must again come together.

SantalBapla/Marriage

Raibar Bapla:
This form of marriage is most commonly practiced in Santal society, where parents of both side select the bride and groom. Once they liked each other, then Raibar (match maker ) is appointed to negotiate between them. Generally, bride's father asks for bride price, which is generally divided among the bride's father, bride's mother, Mother's mother and father's mother. The brother of bride will get bull from groom. It is customs that not fix the marriage date in the month of birth.
Sanga bapla:
In this form of marriage the divorced women or widow is married with a widower. Here, bridegroom and bride settle the negotiation and mostly male takes the initiatives. In this marriage, bride price is very nominal. The binding ceremony of the Santal marriage is the Sindurdan; Which is here done by not applying the Sidur directly on the parting of the hair of bride by bridegroom, but instead he smears a dimbu flower with vermilion and fix it in the bride's coiffure.
Kudam Bapla:
If a girl becomes pregnant, the young man by whom she becomes so is bound to marry her. Generally young man informs the Jog Majhi (Assistant to head man) of his offence and the girl confesses it to wife of Jog Majhi. Then they inform to parents of bride and bridegroom. As usual, bridegroom pays bride price and bull. Bridegroom at the time of applying vermilion stands facing west and bride facing east.
Kiring Jawae:
If the couple belongs to the same sept, the headman calls for councils of village, and the decision would be always negative. Here boy's father has to bear the expenses of the marriage of the girl to another man. Then headman arranges the marriage for girl far away from village and name of boy is always secret.
Ghardi jawae:
When a man has minor sons and grown up daughter, he procures Ghardi-Jawae to get in his agricultural work. All expenses of marriage is borne by bride's father. At ordinary situation marriage the bridegroom 's friends are called Bariat; but in this it is the friends of bride that are called so. In this kind of marriage the bridegroom pays nothing for his bride but lives with father in-laws and work for him without wages for five years. When man procure a Ghardi Jawae to get help his agricultural works, in such cases, the girl's father sets aside a bit of land for this Ghardi Jawae and help him to get additional land Once five years of service is over, the Ghardi jawae is free to depart.
Tunki Dipil Bapla:
Poor men perform this type of marriage. As they have not sufficient money to bear the expenses of the regular marriage (Raibar Bapla), they resort this type of marriage. The bride is brought to the house of the bridegroom with small basket on her head; a few friends and relatives accompany her to her house. The bridegroom in the presence of these persons applies vermilion on her head and couple then lives as husband and wife.
Itut Bapla:
Forward young men who are not quite sure whether the girl fancy will accept them and take this means of compelling her to marry adopt this. This type of marriage is looked down up and rarely occurs. Generally double bride price is paid and the marriage is still legal. But if girl declines to live, then she must take divorced in full moon and cannot marry as spinster.
Nirbolok Bapla:
This form of marriage can said to be female variety of 'Itut" Bapla. A girl who cannot get a man whom she likes in the regular way, takes pot of rice beer and enters his house and insist upon staying there. They do not adopt any physical force to expel her from house. It is said to quite fair and usually effective to throw red peper on the fire, as by inhaling smoke she will be compelled to run away. If she passes this endurance test without leaving house, she is held to have own her husband and family is bound to recognize her as husband. This type of marriage also rarely occurs in Santal society.

TheSantalCommunity

It is a fact that till date the focus of the LOKFOLK was mainly at the Bangla's folk community and culture rather the tribal community. We are now serially putting various social tradition and mores, at first of the Santal Community- then other indigenous people. Other posts will be posted after completing the Santal Community information

Santals has wonderful socio-cultural mosaic, which often we round of it in the present caste rifted Indian society. the following are the main socio-religious characteristics of the Santals:
• Santals have separate religion and it is called "Sarna". Even Indian Constitution does treat Santals religion as separate one.
• Offering during worship is made within the pictorial boundary known as khond as a mark of the mundane relationship of the supernatural power.
• Image or idol worship is absent and there is no as such traditional temple that exists in Santal society.
• Both burial and cremation are practiced. A chicken is dedicated to the dead body.
• The society is devoid of caste hierarchy and therefore, the Santal's is a casteless society. By birth no person, family, clan group is superior or inferior. Santal women enjoys much more freedom than their counterparts in Indian Society.
• Blood offering is prevalent in the community. Earlier practice of cow sacrifice is now restricted.
• Priesthood is not appropriated by a particular clan group or a sect but is owned by the family members of the first settlers of the village. Occasionally selection of a successor of the old priest is held if he leaves no issue (male child). Mainly a divinated person makes such a selection and it is undisputed.
Santal's Social life:
Santal social organization has very interesting characteristics. It contains flexibility in rigidity. Marriage is one of the important components in the dynamics of Santal society. It, indeed, have wonderful and interesting feature. Therefore, more details description is given here for Santal marriage to have understanding of Santal life, and their feeling and sentiments. It, to some extend, depicts the Santal way of life.
Santal Marriage:
The Santali name for marriage is called /Bapla/. In Santal society, marriage is one of sacred event of life and marriage adds up considerable respect in society. However, there are some traditions and customs need to be strictly followed in doing so. It is strictly forbidden for any Santal to marry within his or her own sept (Parish). He can marry into any other septs or sub-septs to which his/her mother belonged. There are some septs, which never intermarry with another in consequence of some ancient feuds between them. For example, A Hansdak' male or a female never marries a Murmu female or male respectively. Similarly, a Tudu male never marries a Besra female and vice versa. These customs are no longer in effective prevalent in day-to-day life of Santals. However, myths and tales associated with feud are still told among the Santals.
Girls are married as adults mostly to men of their own choice. In Santal marriage, there is no restriction of age. The bride may be younger, older or of equal age with bridegroom. There are two types of marriage practiced by Santals- the marriage arranged by Raibar (match maker) is the regular form of marriage. Couple themselves arranges the other forms of marriages.
Next post will be various marriage traditions of the Santal Community.